Kashmir Mahatamya — Chronicles from the paradise on Earth, PART-2

Kashmir Mahatamya — Chronicles from the paradise on Earth, PART-2

The Rise and Fall of Kashmir’s Forgotten Dynasties

Kashmir was seen as the silicon valley of the 1st millennium, with many scholars turning towards Kashmir it became the seal of quality for which Greeks called it the cradle of civilisation. According to Rajtarangini (a history book of ancient Kashmir), it was a country in which there was no space even as large as a grain of sesame without a pilgrimage. It is said that there was a time when mornings in Kashmir valley used to start with recitation of OM and ringing bells in temples.

According to the modern historians Kashmir was ruled by 136 Hindu and Buddhist kings, with Gonanda I 3238–3188 BCE, claiming to be the 1st known king of Kashmir, the valley was known to be ruled by 84 kings after him until 3rd BCE. However, these facts are never mentioned our school textbooks. It is well established that Emperor Ashoka propagated Buddhism in Kashmir in 3rd Century BCE. What is to be accentuated here is that Buddhism was widely spread in Kashmir even before Emperor Ashoka, having the patronage of both Buddhist and Hindu kings. Both the Rajtarangini and other Chinese travellers to Kashmir between 630 and 730 AD, mentioned the propagation of Buddhism in Kashmir by the monarchs there.

From the legendary Gonanda dynasty that traced its origins to the Mahabharata, to the grandeur of Lalitaditya Muktapida’s conquests, and the cultural renaissance under Avantivarman, this valley has seen glory, courage, resilience and revival.

In ancient Kashmir, the succession of rulers unfolds with notable events and transitions. This account of rulers which are going to be discussed below are from the mentions from series of books by Kalhana.

Gonanda Dynasty

Gonanda I, a contemporary of Yudhishthira and relative of Magadha’s ruler Jarasandha, met his demise at the hands of Balarama, Krishna’s elder brother. Damodara I fell in battle against Krishna, leaving his pregnant wife Yashovati to ascend the throne with Krishna’s support. Their son, Gonanda II, ruled Kashmir as a minor during the Kurukshetra War but was later killed by Parikshit. A manuscript known as the Ratnakar Purana once held names of 35 kings, now lost, but purportedly translated into Persian during the reign of Zain-ul-Abidin. Some sources suggest Parikshit passed Kashmir to Harnadeva after Gonanda II’s death, leading to the Pandava Dynasty.

Lava, a descendant of Gonanda I, founded the Kashmira Naga Dynasty by defeating King Bhagavanta in 1752 BCE, establishing Lolora and marking a significant period in Kashmir’s history. Subsequent rulers like Kusheshaya, Khagendra, Surendra, and others, each contributed to the region’s cultural and political landscape, with influences ranging from Buddhist traditions under Surendra to Shaivite practices under leaders like Jalauka and Damodara II. Hushka, Jushka and Kanishka follow them later.

Followed by Abhimanyu I A Shaivite during whose reigns Buddhists also flourished. Because of the rising Buddhist influence, people stopped following the Shaivite Naga rites prescribed in the holy text Nilamata Purana. This angered the Nagas, who heavily persecuted the Buddhists. To avoid this disorder, the king retired. A Brahmin named Chandradeva restored Shaivite rites by worshipping Shiva. The Gonanda dynasty’s reign over Kashmir spanned 1002 years, beginning with Gonanda III who established a new era in 1182 BCE. He traced his lineage to Rama and reinstated the Naga rites.

Vibhishana I , followed governing for 53 years and 6 months from 1147 BCE. Indrajit ruled for 35 years starting in 1094 BCE, while the iconic figure of Ravana, known for a Shivalinga that persisted into Kalhana’s time, ruled for 30 years and 6 months. Vibhishana II succeeded him, ruling for the same duration, beginning in 1058 BCE. Nara I, also known as Kinnara, governed for 40 years and 9 months, but his reign ended tragically when a Naga chief’s retaliation over a domestic issue led to his death in a fire that consumed his capital. Siddha, Nara’s son, reigned for 60 years and was noted for his ascetic lifestyle and religious pursuits. Utpalaksha, Siddha’s son, followed with a rule of 30 years and 6 months, maintaining the dynasty’s stability. Hiranyaksha, Utpalaksha’s son, governed for 37 years and 7 months, followed by Hiranyakula who ruled for 60 years, solidifying the dynasty’s legacy.

Vasukula, also known as Mukula, reigned for 60 years and saw the invasion of Mlechchhas, possibly Hunas, into Kashmir. Mihirakula, infamous for his cruelty and reign of terror, governed for 70 years and committed selfimmolation in old age. Vaka, a virtuous king, was tragically seduced and killed along with his sons and grandsons by a woman named Vatta. His only surviving child, Kshitinanda, then ascended the throne and ruled for 30 years. Vasunanda, renowned as the “originator of the science of love,” governed for 52 years and 2 months. Nara II succeeded him and reigned for 60 years, followed by Aksha who ruled for another 60 years. Gopaditya, Aksha’s son, governed for 60 years and 6 days, notable for his patronage of Brahmins and expulsion of irreligious ones. Gokarna succeeded him and governed for 57 years and 11 months, followed by Narendraditya I, also known as Khingkhila, who governed for 36 years, 3 months, and 10 days. Yudhisthira I, famed as “the blind” due to his small eyes, ruled for 34 years, 5 months, and 1 day. Towards the end of his reign, Yudhisthira I faced challenges from rebellious ministers and sought asylum from a neighbouring king. His descendant Meghavahana later restored the dynasty’s rule, marking a pivotal moment in Kashmir’s ancient history.

In the next 192 years Pratapaditya I ruled for 32 years from 167 BCE, and was noted as a relative of Vikrmaditya, distinct from the famed Vikramaditya of Ujjain associated with Matrigupta. His son, Jalauka, succeeded him and governed for 32 years starting in 135 BCE. Tungjina I, who reigned for 36 years from 103 BCE, co-administered with his queen and famously sheltered his people within the royal palace during a severe famine caused by heavy frost. After his death, the queen committed sati, and the couple passed away childless. Vijaya followed with an 8- year rule from a different dynasty than Tungjina.

Jayendra, Vijaya’s son, governed for 37 years from 59 BCE, described with arms extending to his knees. He fell victim to flattery from courtiers who turned him against his minister Sandhimati. The minister endured persecution and ten years of imprisonment due to false rumours of succession. In his later years, Jayendra, having no heir, ordered Sandhimati’s execution upon hearing misleading reports of his demise. Sandhimati, also known as Aryaraja, ruled for 47 peaceful years starting in 22 BCE after being chosen reluctantly by the citizens and installed with the guidance of his guru Ishana. A devout Shaivite, Sandhimati filled his court with sages and spent his time in forest retreats, fostering a tranquil reign. Eventually, his ministers orchestrated the ascension of Meghavahana, a descendant of Yudhishthira I, and Sandhimati willingly relinquished the throne.

Meghavahana Dynasty

Meghavahana ruled Kashmir for 34 years from 25 CE. He was the son of Yudhisthira I’s greatgrandson, who sought asylum from Gopaditya, the king of Gandhara. Meghavahana gained prominence when he won the hand of a Vaishnavite princess at a Swayamvara in a neighbouring kingdom. Ministers of Kashmir brought him to rule after Sandhimati declined kingship. Meghavahana instituted bans on animal slaughter, compensated hunters, patronized Brahmins, and established a monastery. His queens were known for constructing Buddhist viharas and monasteries. He extended his authority by subduing kings as far as the Sinhala Kingdom, enforcing bans on animal slaughter in their territories. Shreshtasena son of Meghavahana, ruled for 30 years starting in 59 CE. He was succeeded by his son and co-regent Toramana, who ruled for 30 years and 2 months alongside his brother Hiranya. Toramana faced imprisonment after minting coins in his name, but was freed by his son Pravarasena, who had been raised in secrecy by his mother Anjana. Hiranya, who died without children, marked the end of this line.

Matrigupta ascended the throne for 4 years, 9 months, and 1 day from 120 CE, chosen by the legendary Vikramaditya (alias Harsha) of Ujjain. After Vikramaditya’s demise, Matrigupta abdicated in favor of Pravarasena II.Pravarasena II ruled for 60 years from 125 CE, expanding his influence over many regions and restoring Vikramaditya’s son Pratapshila to power in Ujjain. He founded Pravarapura, identified as modern-day Srinagar by later historians due to its topographical details.

Yudhishthira II governed for 39 years and 8 months starting in 185 CE, succeeded by his son Narendraditya I (Lakshmana) who ruled for 13 years from 206 CE. Ranaditya I younger brother of Narendraditya, had a notable reign of 300 years beginning in 219 CE. His queen Ranarambha was revered as an incarnation of Bhramaravasini. Vikramaditya, son of Ranaditya, ruled for 42 years from 519 CE, followed by his younger brother Baladitya who governed for 36 years and 8 months starting in 561 CE. Baladitya subdued numerous adversaries and arranged his daughter’s marriage to Durlabhavardhana, a non-royal man from to circumvent a prophesied succession by his son-in-law.

Karkota Dynasty (7th — 9th century CE):

Durlabhavardhana’s successor Durlabhaka (634–694 CE) — Son of Anangalekha. He was adopted as a son by his maternal grandfather, and assumed the title Pratapaditya after the title of the grandfather’s dynasty. He was then followed by Chandra Pida and Tara Pida.

Lalitaditya Muktapida (724–760 CE) Lalitaditya Muktapida, the most powerful ruler of Kashmir, was born in 699 AD as the third son of Durlabhaka-Pratapaditya of the Nagvanshi Karkota Kayastha Dynasty. He ascended the throne in 724 AD, facing Arab invasions under Mohammad Bin Qasim. He expanded Kashmir’s influence by defeating the Daradas, Kabhojas, and Bhuttas of Ladakh and thwarting Arab incursions with Yashovarman’s support. His campaigns extended westward into Turkestan and southward into Maharashtra, the Pallava territories, and Kalinga, even reaching Central China. A visionary ruler, he initiated extensive infrastructure projects and temple constructions, including the Martand Sun Temple. He led military campaigns extending his empire into Central Asia, defeating Turkic and Tibetan forces. His patronage of art and culture led to the construction of the magnificent Martand Sun Temple, an architectural marvel blending Gandhara and Kashmiri styles. Lalitaditya encouraged trade and commerce, connecting Kashmir to the Silk Route. His policies ensured prosperity, and he fostered literature and Sanskrit learning. His rule marked a golden era, making Kashmir a powerful cultural and political entity.

Kuvalayapida, son of Lalitaditya and Kamaladevi, reigned for 1 year and 15 days starting in 739 CE. His rule was brief and marked by a succession struggle with his half-brother Vajraditya II. Eventually, he abdicated the throne to become a hermit in search of peace. Vajraditya, son of Lalitaditya and Chakramardika, ruled for 7 years beginning in 746 CE. Known for his cruelty and immoral behavior, he introduced the evil habits of the mlechchhas to Kashmir. His son, Prithivyapida I, succeeded him and reigned for 4 years and 1 month before being deposed by his half-brother Sangramapida I, who ruled for only 7 days in 750 CE before his death.

Jayapida , the youngest son of Vajraditya II, took the throne in 781 CE, ruling for 31 years. He erected a monument at Prayaga and married Kalyanadevi, daughter of Jayanta, the king of Pundravardhana in the Gauda region. Jayapida subdued five Gauda kings, making them vassals of his father-in-law, and also defeated the king of Kanyakubja. While Jayapida was in Gauda, his brother-in-law Jajja usurped the throne in Kashmir. After ruling for three years, Jajja was killed by Shrideva, a supporter of Jayapida, allowing Jayapida to reclaim the throne. He patronized scholars and waged wars against Bhimasena of the East and Aramuri of Nepala, managing to escape imprisonment by both enemies and ultimately defeating them. In his later years, he imposed excessive taxes on the advice of the Kayasthas and treated his subjects cruelly, dying from a curse by a Brahmin in 793 CE. Lalitapida, son of Jayapida and Durgi, reigned for 12 years beginning in 793 CE but neglected his royal duties, indulging in sensual pleasures instead. Sangramapida II (Prithivyapida II), son of Jayapida and Kalyana, succeeded him in 805 CE and ruled for 7 years. Chippatajayapida son of Lalitapida and his concubine Jayadevi, ruled for 12 years starting in 812 CE, though the actual power lay with Jayadevi’s brothers Padma, Utpalaka, Kalyana, Mamma, and Dharmma.

Ajitapida, son of Lalitapida and Jayadevi, became king in 830 CE, reigning for 37 years until he was dethroned by Mamma and his son Yashovarman. Anangapida, son of Sangramapida II, ruled for 3 years beginning in 867 CE, having been made king by Mamma and Yashovarman. Utpalapida, son of Ajitapida, ascended the throne in 870 CE and ruled for 2 years before being deposed by the minister Shura. Utpala pida was succeeded by Avantivarman thus ending this and beginning the Utpala Dynasty.

Utpala Dynasty

Avanti Varman was a ruler of the Utpala dynasty who reigned over Kashmir in the late 9th and early 10th centuries. He is credited with bringing stability and prosperity to the region after a period of political turmoil. Avanti Varman is particularly known for his contributions to irrigation and agriculture, most notably through the efforts of his prime minister, Suyya, who undertook large-scale water management projects to prevent floods and improve cultivation. His reign marked a cultural and economic revival, with advancements in art, literature, and infrastructure.

Shankaravarman, succeeding his father, Avanti Varman. Unlike his father’s stable and prosperous reign, Shankaravarman was known for his military ambitions and attempts to expand his kingdom through aggressive campaigns. However, his focus on warfare strained the economy, as he imposed heavy taxes to fund his expeditions. He relocated the capital from Avantipur to Shankarapura (believed to be modern-day Pattan) and built several temples, reflecting his patronage of Hinduism. His reign ultimately weakened the Utpala dynasty, as his military campaigns led to instability, and he was eventually killed in battle, paving the way for further political turmoil in Kashmir.

Gopalavarman, son of Shankaravarman, ruled for 2 years starting in 902 CE with the assistance of his mother, Sugandha, but was murdered. His brother Sankata succeeded him in 904 CE but died after only 10 days on the throne.

After the death of all male heirs, Sugandha became queen in 904 CE but was deposed by Tantrin soldiers. She waged war against the Tantrins with the help of their rivals, the Ekanga, but was ultimately defeated and killed. Partha, a 10-year-old child of Nirjitavarman, was placed on the throne by the Tantrins in 906 CE. Nirjitavarman, a half-brother of Avantivarman, ruled next in 921 CE, followed by Chakravarman in 922 CE, who purchased the throne from the Tantrins.

Shuravarman I briefly took over in 933 CE, also purchasing the throne from the Tantrins. Partha then returned to power in 934 CE after another purchase, only to be succeeded once again by Chakravarman in 935 CE. Shankaravardhana assumed the throne later in 935 CE through another transaction with the Tantrins. Chakravarman reclaimed the throne in 936 CE after defeating the Tantrins with the help of Damara feudal lords, but his unpopular rule led to his death. Unmotivating (“Mad Avanti”), son of Partha, took over in 937 CE after murdering his father and starving his half-brothers to death. He was succeeded by Shuravarman II in 939 CE, the son of Unmattavanti.

In Book 6, detailing the Utpala dynasty, Yashaskara deva ascended to the throne in 939 CE, elected by a council of Brahmins. Varnata followed in 948 CE, succeeded the same year by Sangramadeva who was murdered by Parvagupta, a regent-minister. Parvagupta, a strong but unpopular ruler, took over in 948 CE, followed by his son Kshemagupta in 950 CE. Kshemagupta’s wife, Didda of the Lohara dynasty, along with her relatives, managed the administration. Daughter of Simharaja of Lohar, Didda ruled indirectly and directly until 1003 CE, placing her brother’s son, Samgramaraja, on the throne, thus starting the Lohara dynasty.

Lohara Dynasty

Sangramaraja ascended the throne in 1003 CE as the nephew of Didda, beginning the Lohara dynasty’s rule over Kashmir. Hariraja briefly took over the throne for 22 days in 1028 CE, after which Ananta-deva became the king. Ananta-deva abdicated the throne in favor of his son, but retained power through his minister Haladhara.

Kalasha became king in 1063 CE after rebelling against his parents, leading to the suicide of his father Ananta and the subsequent sati-suicide of his mother. Kalasha’s son Harsha later revolted against him and was imprisoned. Utkarsha, the second son of Kalasha, reigned for 22 days in 1089 CE. His half-brother Vijaymalla rebelled, releasing Harsha from prison. Utkarsha was imprisoned and he committed suicide. Harsha, who reigned until his death in 1101 CE, initially was a sagacious king and a patron of art and literature. However, his later years were marked by unsuccessful military campaigns, excessive taxation, and plundering of temples. His generals Uchchala and Sussala of the Lohara family revolted against him, ending his reign. Harsha’s son Bhoja was killed, and Harsha himself was killed by Uchchala’s men while hiding in a village.

In Book 8 of the Rajatarangini, the Second Lohara dynasty is detailed. Uchchala, who made his brother Sussala the ruler of Lohara, was murdered by Radda , who usurped the throne, claiming to be a descendant of Yashaskara. Salhana, Uchchala’s step-brother, became the king after Radda’s death, but the real power lay in the hands of a noble named Gargachandra. Salhana was deposed and imprisoned. Sussala, Uchchala’s brother, ascended the throne with Gargachandra’s support. Bhikshachara, Harsha’s grandson who had escaped Uchchala’s revolt and was brought up by Naravarman, the king of Malava, deposed Sussala. Within six months of Bhikshachara’s ascension, Sussala recovered his capital, leading to a civil war. Jayasimha (also known as Sinha-deva), the son of Sussala, succeeded him. Who is called Sinha Deva was helped by Sussala during Early days.

In the 22nd year of his reign Kalhana’s account closes.

According to sources he kept up the consolidation of power and continuation of its influence of Lohara dynasty until 1155CE.

Vantideva- 1155–1165 CE , Vantideva succeeded Jayasimha and maintained stability in the region. Jasdeva- 1165–1171 CE Known for his brief rule and the challenges faced during his reign. Sinha-deva (Second Reign)- 1171–1180 CE Returned to the throne to restore order. Laksmanadeva-1180–1199 CE Faced internal strife and external threats during his reign.

Simhadeva- 1199–1213 CE , Last ruler of the Lohara dynasty before the beginning of Muslim influence in Kashmir.

With the fall of the Lohara dynasty, the era of significant Hindu kingdoms in Kashmir came to an end. The once-glorious land, which had flourished under Hindu rulers, soon found itself under the shadow of relentless invasions. The Islamic conquest that followed marked the beginning of a reign of terror, bringing widespread destruction to temples, forced conversions, and a drastic cultural shift. This turbulent transition, which reshaped the region’s history, will be explored in the next part.

From the AUTHOR, Hamsini Deshmukh ( ME23B2016), I am a great admirer of Kashmir and its alluring beauty, it’s my hobby to read about and explore Kashmir and this went on to be a motive for me to bring this article together… The invaluable legacy of India’s crown jewel-Kashmir and its long forgotten heritage should be popularized is what I contemplate.

I have an innate attraction towards Indian Heritage, classical music, yoga, fascinating historic legends, and all Indic stuff! I have learnt classical music for 5 years and taken extensive classes in Sanskrit shlokas for about 15 years, which inspired and developed fond interest in me to study about Mahabharata, Ramayana and I am currently trying to learn and understand the original 24000 verses of Valmiki Ramayana….